The Seven Years' War, spanning from 1756 to 1763, stands as the last major conflict before the French Revolution that involved all the great powers of Europe. It pitted France, Austria, Saxony, Sweden, and Russia against Prussia, Hanover, and Great Britain.

Seven Years' War

The war originated from the Austrian Habsburgs' desire to regain the prosperous province of Silesia, which had been seized by Frederick II (the Great) of Prussia during the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748). However, the conflict also encompassed colonial struggles between Great Britain and France, with North America (the French and Indian War; 1754-1763) and India emerging as primary battlegrounds.

The Diplomatic Revolution and Prelude to the French and Indian War

Following the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, which ended the War of the Austrian Succession, tensions and discontent among the major powers persisted. The treaty failed to address the colonial rivalry between Great Britain and France, and it confirmed Frederick the Great's conquest of Silesia, setting the stage for future conflicts between Austria and Prussia.

The rise of Prussia posed a challenge to Russia's ambitions in Poland and the Baltic region, even though Russia had played a significant role in the war as a British ally. These circumstances led to a diplomatic shift and the formation of new alliances, known as the "diplomatic revolution" or the "reversal of alliances."

Discontent and Colonial Rivalry:

The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle did not resolve the ongoing colonial rivalry between Great Britain and France. Both powers remained unsatisfied and were bound to clash again in the future. Additionally, the treaty confirmed Frederick the Great's control over Silesia, creating tension between Austria and Prussia.

Russia's Challenge:

Russia viewed Prussia's growing power as a threat to its own ambitions in Poland and the Baltic region. Despite its contributions as a British ally, Russia was excluded from the negotiations at the peace congress due to French objections. This further strained relations between France and Russia.

Traditional Alliances:

During the War of the Austrian Succession, France's traditional enemies, Great Britain and Austria, formed an alliance similar to their past opposition to Louis XIV. Prussia, as the leading anti-Austrian state in Germany, received support from France. However, both alliances faced dissatisfaction and disappointment with their partnerships. British subsidies to Austria yielded little benefit, and the British military effort failed to secure Silesia for Austria.

The Diplomatic Revolution:

France and Prussia, despite their differences, formed a defensive alliance in 1747. Meanwhile, the Duke of Newcastle, the British secretary of state, saw the maintenance of the Anglo-Austrian alliance as crucial. However, a significant shift occurred when France aligned with Austria, and Great Britain aligned with Prussia. This reversal of alliances marked the "diplomatic revolution," altering the geopolitical landscape and setting the stage for future conflicts.

The period following the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle witnessed discontent among major powers and the failure to address underlying issues. The rise of Prussia and the unresolved colonial rivalry between France and Great Britain led to a diplomatic shift. The alignment of France with Austria and Great Britain with Prussia, known as the "diplomatic revolution," reshaped alliances and laid the groundwork for subsequent conflicts, including the French and Indian War.

The Hanoverian King George II and His Commitments

George II's Devotion to Continental Holdings

George II, the Hanoverian king of Great Britain, was deeply devoted to his family's Continental holdings. These territories held significant importance to him, and he prioritized their security and well-being.

The Balancing Act: Germany and the British Colonies

However, George II's devotion to his Continental holdings had to be carefully balanced with the demands of the British colonies overseas. As the king of Great Britain, he also had responsibilities and commitments to the colonies that required his attention and resources.

The Need for Hanover's Security in Colonial Expansion

If Great Britain were to resume war against France for colonial expansion, it was crucial to secure Hanover against potential attacks from the Franco-Prussian alliance. Hanover's vulnerability posed a significant risk that France could exploit, jeopardizing British interests.

France's Interest in Colonial Expansion

France, like Great Britain, had a keen interest in colonial expansion. However, the French were hesitant to divert their forces to central Europe for the sake of Prussia. Their primary focus was on expanding their colonies rather than engaging in conflicts on the European continent.

Le Secret du Roi: Louis XV's Private Diplomacy

French policy was further complicated by the existence of le Secret du roi, a clandestine system of private diplomacy conducted by King Louis XV. This secret network consisted of agents spread throughout Europe, pursuing personal political objectives that often contradicted France's publicly stated policies.

Louis XV's Objectives for Le Secret du Roi

Louis XV had various goals for le Secret du roi. One objective was to secure the Polish crown for his relative, Louis François de Bourbon, Prince de Conti. Additionally, he aimed to maintain Poland, Sweden, and Turkey as French client states, thereby countering Russian and Austrian interests in those regions.

The Intricacies of French Policy

The existence of le Secret du roi added layers of complexity to French policy. While publicly pursuing colonial expansion, France had to navigate the delicate balance between supporting its allies and advancing the personal objectives of Louis XV. This intricate web of diplomacy influenced the decisions and actions of the French government.

In summary, King George II of Great Britain was deeply committed to his family's Continental holdings in Hanover. However, he had to balance these commitments with the demands of the British colonies overseas.

The need to secure Hanover against potential Franco-Prussian attacks was crucial for British colonial expansion. France, driven by its own colonial ambitions, was interested in exploiting Hanover's vulnerability but was hesitant to divert forces to central Europe for the sake of Prussia.

French policy was further complicated by King Louis XV's secret diplomacy network, le Secret du roi, which pursued personal objectives that sometimes conflicted with France's public policies.

These objectives included securing the Polish crown for Louis XV's relative and maintaining French client states in opposition to Russian and Austrian interests. The intricacies of French policy were influenced by the existence of this clandestine diplomatic system.

Austria-Russia Defensive Alliance

On June 2, 1746, Austria and Russia formed a defensive alliance aimed at protecting their territories and Poland from potential attacks by Prussia or Turkey. The alliance included a secret clause that promised Austria the restoration of Silesia and the countship of Glatz in the event of hostilities with Prussia.

The Desire to Destroy Frederick's Power

Despite the defensive nature of the alliance, Austria and Russia harbored a deep desire to dismantle Frederick's power altogether. Their ultimate goal was to reduce his influence on his electorate of Brandenburg while giving East Prussia to Poland. This exchange would be accompanied by the transfer of the Polish Duchy of Courland to Russia.

Bestuzhev-Ryumin's Hostility and Kaunitz's Reluctance

Count Bestuzhev-Ryumin, the grand chancellor of Russia under Empress Elizabeth, held hostile views toward both France and Prussia. However, he struggled to convince Austrian statesman Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz to commit to offensive designs against Prussia. Kaunitz hesitated due to Prussia's reliance on French support, making it challenging to undertake aggressive actions against Frederick.

Frederick's Dilemma: Expansion and Support

Frederick the Great saw potential opportunities for expansion in Saxony and Polish West Prussia. However, he knew that initiating an aggressive war for these territories would not garner support from France. If he were to join forces with the French against the British in hopes of annexing Hanover, he risked facing an Austro-Russian attack.

The Complications of Saxony and Poland

The hereditary Elector of Saxony, Frederick Augustus II, held the title of King of Poland as Augustus III. However, Saxony and Polish West Prussia were physically separated by Brandenburg and Silesia. Neither Saxony nor Poland held significant power as independent states. Saxony served as a buffer between Prussia and Austrian Bohemia, while Poland struggled with pro-French and pro-Russian factions.

Prussian Scheme for Compensation

Prussia developed a scheme to compensate Frederick Augustus by offering Bohemia in exchange for Saxony. However, this plan inherently required further territorial gains at the expense of Austria, further complicating the delicate balance of power in the region.

Preliminary Negotiations: Hanoverian Support and Frederick the Great's Opposition

The British government sought to please Austria by proposing Hanoverian support for the election of Maria Theresa's son, Joseph, as the next Holy Roman Emperor. However, Frederick the Great, who held the titles of Elector of Brandenburg and King of Prussia, vehemently opposed this proposal. The other German electors were wary of antagonizing Frederick and thus the plan failed.

British Accession to the Austro-Russian Alliance

In 1750, Great Britain joined the Austro-Russian defensive alliance of 1746. However, they did not agree to the secret clause regarding Silesia, nor did they secure a guarantee from Austria and Russia to maintain the status quo in Hanover.

Kaunitz's Efforts in France and Franco-Austrian Relations

In 1750, Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz, an Austrian statesman, visited France to seek French support for Austro-Russian plans against Prussia. However, France was not yet ready to resume diplomatic relations with Russia, which had been severed in 1748.

Additionally, they were unwilling to cooperate in the destruction of Prussia, as it would have restored Austria's undisputed hegemony in Germany. By 1753, when Maria Theresa recalled Kaunitz to Vienna as chancellor, his efforts had only resulted in a vague atmosphere of Franco-Austrian goodwill.

Hostilities in the Colonies: Tensions in India and North America

The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, signed in 1748, did not alleviate the tensions between the French and British East India companies. In North America, relations between the colonists had steadily deteriorated since 1752. By 1754, French aggression in North America had reached a level that the British could no longer ignore. The British policy of allowing "Americans to fight Americans" had led to a series of French military victories.

Undeclared Naval War: British Actions and Safeguarding Hanover

In June 1755, British Admiral Edward Boscawen initiated an attack on French ships in the Strait of Belle Isle, marking the beginning of an undeclared naval war between the two countries. However, before the British government could openly declare hostilities against France, they needed to ensure the safeguarding of Hanover.

The British planned to utilize their naval superiority while keeping France's superior land forces in Europe in check with the assistance of a Continental ally.

In summary, preliminary negotiations involved the proposal of Hanoverian support for Maria Theresa's son's election, which faced opposition from Frederick the Great. Great Britain joined the Austro-Russian alliance but did not agree to the secret clause on Silesia or obtain a guarantee for Hanover's status quo. Efforts to garner French support against Prussia yielded limited results.

Meanwhile, tensions in the colonies, particularly in India and North America, escalated. British actions in the Strait of Belle Isle initiated an undeclared naval war, but before open hostilities, safeguarding Hanover was a priority, allowing British naval superiority to counterbalance France's land forces.

Defensive Alliances and Negotiations

Austria's Reluctance and Kaunitz's Proposal

Austria, primarily concerned with Silesia, was hesitant to get involved in the Anglo-French conflict. Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz, an Austrian statesman, suggested that Great Britain should hire German and Russian mercenaries to defend Hanover and the southern Netherlands.

The latter had previously served as a base for joint Austro-British and Dutch operations against France. Kaunitz even considered ceding the Austrian Netherlands to France in exchange for assistance regarding Silesia. However, the level of effort Kaunitz was willing to exert against France fell short of British expectations.

British-Russian Treaty Negotiations

Rejected by Austria, the British turned to Russia for a new treaty. On September 30, 1755, a preliminary agreement was signed in St. Petersburg by Count Bestuzhev, the Russian grand chancellor, and Sir Charles Hanbury Williams, the British ambassador.

The agreement stipulated that Russia would maintain a force of 55,000 men on the Livonian-Lithuanian frontier, ready to defend British interests on the Continent if needed. In return, Russia would receive an annual subsidy of £100,000, which could increase to £500,000 in the event of an attack.

Bestuzhev, assuming the treaty targeted Prussia, was pleased to have British funds for his own projects. Unbeknownst to Russia, the British were also engaging with Frederick the Great, fearing Austro-Russian intentions. Frederick welcomed the British overtures, though it would strain his alliance with France.

The Convention of Westminster: Britain, Hanover, and Prussia

On January 16, 1756, the Convention of Westminster was signed, establishing an agreement between Great Britain (including Hanover) and Prussia. The treaty ensured mutual respect for each other's territories in Europe and joint resistance against any invasion of "Germany" by a foreign power. However, the Austrian Netherlands was explicitly excluded from this guarantee.

Displeasure and Rapprochement

The Convention of Westminster dismayed Bestuzhev and Empress Elizabeth of Russia, who had not yet ratified the British treaty. Elizabeth insisted that the common enemy referred to in the treaty could only be Prussia. When the British rejected this interpretation, the entire Russo-British arrangement fell apart.

The French government was also angered by its ally, Prussia, for its duplicity. In an effort to improve relations with Russia and gain more information about the Anglo-Russian talks, the French sent Alexander Mackenzie, a Scottish Jacobite refugee, on a clandestine mission to St. Petersburg. Mackenzie acted on behalf of le Secret du roi as well as the French foreign ministry.

However, the agents of le Secret in Poland were unaware of his mission to avoid jeopardizing their anti-Russian stance. Mikhail Illarionovich Vorontsov, the Russian vice-chancellor and a longstanding adversary of Bestuzhev, received Mackenzie favorably.

Elizabeth's indignation at the Convention of Westminster hastened a Franco-Russian rapprochement. In April 1756, Russia pledged 80,000 troops to Austria for an attack on Prussia.

The Convention of Westminster and the First Treaty of Versailles

Kaunitz's Perspective and the First Treaty of Versailles

The Convention of Westminster, from Kaunitz's standpoint, provided reasons for self-congratulation. It reinforced his belief that the British alliance was no longer beneficial, and it compelled France to draw closer to Austria to avoid isolation following Prussia's defection. Negotiations between France and Austria, which had resumed in the summer of 1755, had reached an impasse in December. However, the announcement of the Convention of Westminster revitalized these negotiations.

On May 1, 1756, the First Treaty of Versailles was concluded. This treaty established a defensive alliance between France and Austria, with each party pledging to send 24,000 troops to support the other in the event of an attack. Importantly, Austria was not obligated to join a war against Great Britain under this treaty.

Potential Implications and Frederick's Position

The Convention of Westminster and the First Treaty of Versailles are often regarded as significant factors in the diplomatic revolution. However, they did not inevitably lead to war in Europe. Given their defensive nature, they could have had the opposite effect.

Nevertheless, Kaunitz saw the Austro-French agreement as a step toward enticing France into joining an Austro-Russian offensive alliance against Prussia. The French capture of British Minorca, accomplished during a month-long campaign from April 19 to May 20, 1756, did not compel Prussia to side with Britain and was not a concern for Austria.

Frederick's Response and the Start of the European War

Frederick the Great attempted, unsuccessfully, to portray the Convention of Westminster as consistent with his alliance with France. Consequently, he had to pretend that the First Treaty of Versailles posed no threat to Prussia. However, it was evident that the treaty favored Austria and, indirectly, Russia. Both Austria and Russia began mobilizing troops near their borders with Prussia.

In July and as late as August 20, 1756, Frederick sought assurances from Maria Theresa of her goodwill toward him but received no satisfactory response. On August 29, 1756, Frederick led his army into Saxony, en route to Austria's Bohemian frontier.

The motive behind Frederick's decisive action, which triggered the European war, has been widely debated. Was he compelled to launch a preventive war, intending only to secure military advantages in the face of imminent aggression by Austria and Russia? Or did he perceive the moment as ripe for another war of annexation?

While the British were displeased at the prospect of supporting Frederick if his war went poorly, the French were shocked by his actions. They had signed the Austrian treaty with the belief that they would have their hands free for the crucial war against Britain and that they could later decide whether or not to support an Austrian offensive against Prussia. However, they found themselves obligated to defend Austria against this unforeseen aggression.

Frederick's Advance and the Battle of Lobositz

In 1756, Frederick the Great led his 70,000-strong Prussian army across the Saxon frontier on August 29 and entered Dresden, the capital of Saxony, on September 10. The outnumbered Saxon army, consisting of approximately 20,000 troops, retreated to Pirna in the southeast.

Prussia offered assurances of its good intentions to Saxon Elector Frederick Augustus and his minister, Heinrich von Brühl. However, these promises were met with skepticism, and an Austrian force of 32,000 under Maximilian Ulysses Browne moved from Bohemia to reinforce the Saxons.

Frederick's Strategic Moves and the Battle of Pirna

To prevent the union of the Saxon and Austrian forces, Frederick marched southward into Bohemia. On October 1, he decisively defeated Browne's army at the Battle of Lobositz (now Lovosice, Czech Republic).

After the victory, Frederick returned to Saxony and secured the surrender of the Saxons at Pirna on October 16. He incorporated nearly all of them into his own army, while Frederick Augustus and Brühl retreated to Poland, where the former was king.

Russian Considerations and French Influence

Russia had the option to send forces immediately to assist Austria, but the most direct route to the conflict ran through Poland, a country within the French sphere of influence and largely opposed to Russian ambitions. For an effective anti-Prussian coalition, Kaunitz recognized the importance of Russia and France reaching an agreement.

However, the Russians saw this as an opportunity to extract concessions from France regarding Poland, Sweden, and Turkey. The French foreign ministry was willing to allow swift passage of Russian troops through Polish territory, relieving France of the obligation to assist Austria. However, this conflicted with the goals of le Secret du roi, which aimed to exclude the Russians from Poland at any cost.

Impact of William Pitt the Elder on Britain

In November 1756, the accession of William Pitt the Elder to a position of virtual prime minister in Great Britain would have a decisive impact on the course of the war.

Negotiations and Contradictions-1757

In 1757, after weeks of negotiations, Alexander Mackenzie, who had returned to St. Petersburg as France's official agent, secured Russia's accession to the First Treaty of Versailles. However, this was achieved by making a secret pledge that France would assist Russia in case of a Turkish attack. This pledge contradicted the longstanding Franco-Turkish entente and was disavowed by the French government.

Securing Russia's Accession and Offensive Alliance

A personal letter from Louis XV to Elizabeth played a crucial role in obtaining Russia's accession to the treaty without the objectionable appendix on April 19. On February 2, 1757, an Austro-Russian offensive alliance against Prussia was concluded, with each party committing to fielding 80,000 men and renouncing any separate peace. Secret articles even provided for a partition of Prussia.

The Second Treaty of Versailles

On May 1, 1757, Austria and France signed the Second Treaty of Versailles, which established an offensive alliance against Prussia and included significant territorial adjustments. Austria would regain Silesia but cede the Netherlands to Louis XV and his Spanish Bourbon cousin, Philip, Duke of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla.

Philip's Italian possessions would then revert to Austria. France would maintain a military force of 105,000 men in Germany, in addition to supporting Austria with a subsidy of 12 million lives annually. Shortly after the treaty, François-Joachim de Pierre de Bernis became the French foreign minister.

Declaration of War and Battle of Prague

Austria secured a declaration of a "war of the Empire" against Prussia with a large majority of votes in the Council of Princes of the Reich, despite opposition from Hesse-Kassel, Brunswick, and Hanover. Some Protestant states supported Austria, despite Frederick's attempt to portray himself as the defender of Protestantism against an Austro-French Roman Catholic coalition. In April 1757, the Prussians once again advanced into Bohemia.

On May 6, Frederick's force of 64,000 routed the Austrian army of 66,000 under Browne and Charles, Prince of Lorraine and Bar, at the Battle of Prague. The arrival of an Austrian force led by Leopold Joseph, Graf von Daun, came too late to influence the battle, and the Austrians suffered more than 14,000 casualties while around 16,000 escaped and the rest sought refuge in Prague, which was subsequently besieged by the Prussians. A month later, Daun's force of over 50,000 men moved to relieve Prague, and Frederick faced him with 34,000 troops.

The Battle of Kolín and Prussian Evacuation

On June 18, the Battle of Kolín took place, where Daun achieved a significant victory, inflicting 13,000 Prussian casualties while sustaining only 8,000 of his own. The Prussians raised the siege of Prague and evacuated Bohemia.

Multiple Fronts of Attack

Prussia found itself vulnerable to attacks from various directions during this time. The French initiated their spring campaign by dispatching Louis-Charles-César le Tellier, comte d'Estrées, with an army of 100,000 men against the Army of Observation. This force consisted of Hanoverians and their allies, led by William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, a son of George II.

The Duke suffered defeat at the Battle of Hastenbeck on July 26, 1757, and subsequently withdrew to Stade, near the Elbe estuary, abandoning the defense of the electorate and Brunswick. French command then shifted to Louis-François-Armand du Plessis, Duc de Richelieu. On September 8, Cumberland was compelled to sign the Convention of Klosterzeven under duress from Richelieu, which stipulated the disbanding of the Army of Observation and the evacuation of Hanover.

Richelieu proceeded to advance on Prussia's western frontier, while another French army under Charles de Rohan, Prince de Soubise, crossed Franconia to join Austria's German allies under Joseph Frederick William of Saxe-Hildburghausen. Furthermore, Sweden, having forged an alliance with France and Austria, invaded Prussian Pomerania in September with the aim of annexing it.

Russian Intervention and Prussian Counterattacks

In August 1757, a Russian army of 90,000 men, which had already traversed Polish territory since May, finally entered East Prussia. On August 30, Russian commander Stepan Apraksin inflicted a devastating defeat on the Prussians under Hans von Lehwaldt at Gross-Jägerndorf, west of Gumbinnen (now Gusev, Russia). However, Apraksin inexplicably began a retreat, citing supply difficulties.

It appears that his actions were influenced, at least in part, by the uncertain health of Empress Elizabeth, who harbored animosity towards Prussia, and the pro-Prussian stance of her heir, the future Emperor Peter III. Thus, any Russian general or statesman who inflicted significant harm on Prussia risked incurring the displeasure of their future ruler.

Frederick's Strategic Decisions and Battles

Frederick, with Saxony as his main base, recognized the need to address the Western threat first while leaving Frederick Francis of Brunswick-Bevern to face the Austrians in Silesia. To prevent Richelieu from joining forces with Soubise and Saxe-Hildburghausen, Frederick initially marched toward Halberstadt. However, Austrian successes in Silesia, where Brunswick-Bevern suffered defeat at Moys, prompted Frederick to redirect his forces eastward once again. Meanwhile, Frederick's nephew, Charles William Ferdinand of Brunswick, remained to observe Saxe-Hildburghausen, and an audacious Austrian raid on Berlin further diverted Frederick's attention.

Ultimately, upon learning that Soubise and Saxe-Hildburghausen were in Thuringia, Frederick moved to engage them. The Battle of Rossbach ensued on November 5, 1757. Despite facing combined forces of at least 41,000 French and Reich troops against his own 21,000 Prussians, Frederick's army emerged victorious.

The Prussians' superior mobility and the brilliant cavalry leadership of Friedrich Wilhelm, Freiherr von Seydlitz, turned the tide in their favor. In less than two hours of fighting, the Prussians inflicted 7,000 casualties on the Allies while losing only 550 men. Encouraged by the news of Rossbach, the British government rejected Cumberland's Convention of Klosterzeven. They decided to

reinforce the Hanoverian forces and transfer command in western Germany to Field Marshal Ferdinand of Brunswick, who was Frederick's brother-in-law. In September, a British naval expedition against the French base of Rochefort had proven unsuccessful.

Prussia's Response and Shifting Alliances

The series of setbacks and threats forced Prussia to adopt a strategic approach to confront its adversaries. Frederick, aware of the dangers from multiple fronts, prioritized dealing with the immediate Western threat posed by the French and their allies. The decisive victory at the Battle of Rossbach provided a much-needed boost to Prussian morale and bolstered their international support.

Additionally, Prussia sought to exploit the internal tensions and conflicting interests within the anti-Prussian coalition. The uncertain health of Empress Elizabeth and the pro-Prussian sentiments of her heir, Peter III, created a delicate balance for Russia's involvement in the war. Frederick understood the potential leverage he had in maintaining good relations with Peter III and employed diplomatic maneuvering to mitigate Russian aggression.

Moreover, the British government's repudiation of the Convention of Klosterzeven signaled a renewed commitment to the Prussian cause. The reinforcement of Hanoverian forces and the appointment of Field Marshal Ferdinand of Brunswick as the new commander demonstrated Britain's determination to counter the French threat in western Germany.

Prussia Strikes Back: Battle Victories and Setbacks

In the ongoing conflict, Prussia faced a series of battles and strategic maneuvers in 1758. Frederick the Great, Prussia's astute leader, orchestrated bold offensives and faced formidable challenges from multiple fronts.

The Battle of Leuthen: Frederick's Greatest Victory

After force-marching his army from Thuringia to support Brunswick-Bevern, Frederick engaged the forces of Charles of Lorraine at the Battle of Leuthen on December 5, 1757. Despite being outnumbered with 43,000 men against Charles' 72,000, Frederick employed a brilliant tactical maneuver—a surprise cavalry charge followed by an artillery bombardment. The Prussian victory was resounding, resulting in the rout of Charles' forces, with 22,000 casualties and 12,000 prisoners. Frederick's casualties numbered 6,000. Following the battle, the Prussians reclaimed Breslau, a significant strategic achievement.

Prussian Actions and Russian Threats

During the winter months, General Lehwaldt successfully repelled the Swedish forces and confined them to their part of Pomerania. Simultaneously, the Russians, under the leadership of William Fermor, captured the East Prussian capital of Königsberg on January 22, 1758. However, the thawing of snow rendered the northern roads impassable, temporarily immobilizing Fermor's forces. Internal changes also occurred within the Russian leadership, with the arrest of the anti-French Bestuzhev and the rise of Vorontsov.

Ferdinand of Brunswick's Offensive and British Support

In western Germany, Field Marshal Ferdinand of Brunswick, leading the Anglo-Hanoverian forces, launched a successful offensive against the French in Westphalia. On March 27, his forces crossed the Rhine River at Emmerich and achieved a decisive victory over Louis de Bourbon's forces at Krefeld on June 23. Although subsequent French successes in Hesse and Thuringia countered some of the gains, Ferdinand's victory secured northwestern Germany. Moreover, on April 11, the British signed a new treaty with Prussia, promising an annual subsidy and pledging not to seek a separate peace with other belligerents.

Frederick's Silesian Offensive and Austrian Threats

In April, Frederick initiated an offensive in Silesia, capturing Schweidnitz on April 16. He then proceeded to lay siege to Olmütz in Moravia but was forced to abandon the siege in July due to Austrian threats to his supply bases. In the north, Prussian Pomerania faced a renewed Swedish attack, repelled by General Lehwaldt. However, the Russians resumed their march southwestward from East Prussia toward the Oder River and Brandenburg, posing a new threat to Prussia's eastern front.

Challenges and Counter-Strategies

To evade the advancing Austrians, Frederick executed a strategic maneuver, marching northwestward into Bohemia and then northward across Silesia. Meanwhile, Fermor's Russian forces besieged Küstrin on August 15, but Frederick, with a smaller force, launched a surprise attack on the Russians at Zorndorf on August 25. The battle proved to be the bloodiest of the war, with heavy losses on both sides. Despite the high casualties, the Prussians emerged victorious and pursued the retreating Russians.

Frederick's Focus on Saxony

Following the Zorndorf battle, Frederick hastened back to Saxony to defend his brother Prince Henry from a superior Austrian force under Daun. Daun chose a strong defensive position at Kittlitz, where he confronted Frederick's 37,000 troops with his 90

,000-strong force. Unexpectedly, Daun launched an offensive and caught the Prussians off guard at the Battle of Hochkirch on October 14. Though the victory at Hochkirch cost Daun 7,500 men (compared to the Prussians' loss of 9,500), he was unable to impede Frederick's retreat into Silesia.

Daun, having regrouped, advanced on Dresden, but upon learning of Frederick's approach through Lusatia, he withdrew to Pirna in November. The situation remained tense as Prussia confronted threats on multiple fronts, but Frederick's strategic maneuvers and decisive victories had helped stabilize the situation and preserved Prussia's position in the war.

1759 and Beyond

The conflict would continue in the following years, with Prussia facing further challenges and engaging in a relentless struggle to defend its territories. The war would take its toll on the belligerent nations and reshape the political landscape of Europe. Frederick the Great's military genius and resourcefulness would be tested time and again as he fought to secure Prussia's survival amidst powerful adversaries.

As the war progressed, alliances shifted, and new actors entered the stage, further shaping the course of the conflict. The outcome of the Seven Years' War would have far-reaching consequences, influencing the balance of power in Europe and setting the stage for future conflicts and diplomatic realignments. Prussia's resilience and Frederick's leadership would play a pivotal role in the ultimate outcome of the war and the fate of the European continent.

1759: Russian Advances and Frederick's Defeats

In May 1759, the Russian command shifted from Fermor to Pyotr Saltykov. With a force of 70,000 men, Saltykov advanced through Poland, defeating Prussian forces under Carl Heinrich von Wedel at Züllichau on July 23. Saltykov then moved toward Frankfurt along the Oder River, while Daun dispatched Austrian troops under Gideon Ernest, Freiherr von Laudon, from Saxony to join forces with him. Despite Frederick's attempts to block the Austro-Russian junction, he was unsuccessful. On August 12, Frederick, commanding around 50,000 men, launched a bold assault on the combined Austro-Russian position at Kunersdorf. The outcome was a disastrous defeat for Frederick, with over 18,000 men lost in just six hours of fighting. Meanwhile, Daun captured Dresden on September 14, further compounding Frederick's setbacks.

Challenges and Counter-Moves

Efforts to coordinate actions between Daun and Saltykov were hindered by Frederick's strategic maneuvers following the defeat at Kunersdorf. As Saltykov faced supply issues and withdrew from the scene, Frederick refocused his attention on Daun. He sent Friedrich August von Finck with over 12,000 troops to attack Daun's rear. However, Finck was caught off guard by a superior force of 42,000 Austrians at Maxen in November and was forced to surrender. The year 1759 proved to be a difficult one for Frederick, and his need for reinforcement after the devastating defeat at Kunersdorf prevented the full exploitation of Ferdinand's victory at Minden.

The Ongoing Struggle

The year 1759 was a challenging period for Prussia as Russian and Austrian forces gained ground and inflicted significant losses on Frederick's army. The war continued to take its toll on Prussia and its allies, testing their resilience and ability to withstand relentless assaults. Frederick the Great faced the daunting task of regrouping his forces and devising new strategies to counter the mounting pressure from multiple fronts. The conflict would persist, and the fate of Prussia hung in the balance as Frederick fought to preserve his kingdom against formidable adversaries.

1760: Campaigns in Silesia and Saxony

Russia and Austria's Strategy

In 1760, the Russian and Austrian forces focused their campaign on Silesia. On June 23, Austrian General Laudon dealt a significant blow to the Prussians by defeating them at Landeshut. Subsequently, on July 26, Laudon captured the stronghold of Glatz. Meanwhile, Russian General Saltykov marched south from Poznań to join forces with Laudon.

Frederick's Maneuvers

While monitoring Daun's movements in Saxony, Frederick initially moved against Laudon, but then changed course upon learning that Daun was coming to Laudon's aid. Frederick besieged Dresden on July 12, but when Daun reversed his direction, Frederick lifted the siege and swiftly marched through Meissen and Lusatia to reach Silesia. As 20,000 Russians engaged Prince Henry's Prussian forces near Breslau, the Austrians converged on Frederick.

The Battle of Pfaffendorf and Strategic Shifts

On August 15, at Pfaffendorf near Liegnitz, Laudon launched an attack on Frederick's columns, hoping to prevent their escape from encirclement. However, Laudon suffered heavy losses and failed to achieve his objective. Frederick's deceptive maneuver tricked the Russian forces under Chernyshev into retreating, foiling the Austro-Russian plan for a decisive victory in Silesia.

Daun's Threat and Frederick's Victory at Torgau

Most of Saxony remained vulnerable to Daun's forces, and Brandenburg was open to Russian incursions. A detachment led by Russian General Gottlieb Totleben seized Berlin on October 8–9 and withdrew unopposed on October 13. Daun concentrated 64,000 troops around Torgau, while Frederick faced him with approximately 45,000 soldiers. The Battle of Torgau, Frederick's final major victory, commenced on November 3. Austrian artillery caused severe damage to Frederick's advancing troops, but a late afternoon assault by Prussian General Hans Joachim von Zieten turned the tide and drove the Austrians from the field. Frederick lost 13,000 men, while Daun lost 11,000, with an additional 7,000 Austrians taken as prisoners.

Events in Western Germany and British Support

In western Germany, Broglie achieved a victory at Korbach on July 10, 1760. However, Ferdinand secured a counterbalancing triumph at Warburg on July 31, preventing a French invasion of Hanover. Ferdinand's subsequent attempt to advance across the Rhine was halted by Charles Eugène Gabriel de Castries at Klosterkamp on October 16. On October 25, George II of Great Britain passed away, and his grandson George III ascended to the throne. George III, with a stronger attachment to British interests, held a dislike for Pitt, the proponent of the Anglo-Prussian alliance. Without British subsidies, Prussia would have struggled to continue its fight.

The year 1760 witnessed ongoing struggles in various theaters of the war, with both victories and setbacks shaping the outcomes for the belligerent parties. Prussia, in particular, faced mounting challenges, yet Frederick the Great's military prowess remained instrumental in securing crucial victories and thwarting the enemy's plans.

1761: Variances and Alliances

In March 1761, the attitudes of the anti-Prussian coalition members diverged. France sought a negotiated peace with Britain, while Austria desired a general congress to secure the retrocession of Silesia from Prussia. The Russian empress was determined to continue the war against Frederick and divide Prussia among the allies. Negotiations between France and Britain broke down in July due to Pitt's demand that Britain be allowed to support Prussia while French support for Austria be minimized. Additionally, Britain aimed to retain all its colonial conquests.

In response, Choiseul devised a plan to involve Spain in France's war against Great Britain. In August, a "Family Compact" was established between France's Louis XV and Spain's Charles III, stating that Spain would declare war on Great Britain if France had not achieved peace by May 1, 1762. Spain's claims against Great Britain would be addressed in the final peace settlement. When the British government refused to immediately declare war on Spain in October, Pitt resigned.

Continued Fighting in Western Germany

In western Germany, the conflict persisted. Ferdinand launched a southward advance from Westphalia but was repelled by Broglie at Grünberg on March 21. Despite being vastly outnumbered, Ferdinand managed to halt a French counterthrust into Westphalia at Vellinghausen on July 15-16. British commander John Manners, Marquess of Granby, earned great distinction for repulsing French attacks in that battle. However, by October, the French had made significant progress eastward. Between April and June, a British expedition successfully captured Belle-Île-en-Mer, located off the Breton coast of France.

Prussia's Defensive Efforts

For Prussia, Frederick's primary concern was preventing the junction of Laudon's 72,000 Austrians, stationed in Glatz, with a Russian army of 50,000 led by Buturlin. Frederick concentrated his forces around Schweidnitz, but despite skirmishes and maneuvers lasting two months, the allies managed to unite between Liegnitz and Jauer on August 23. Cut off from the north and outnumbered three to one, Frederick entrenched himself at Bunzelwitz, where the enemy hesitated to attack.

When Buturlin withdrew to the north in September, leaving only 20,000 Russians under Chernyshev in Silesia, Frederick gained freedom to move toward Brandenburg. However, Laudon captured Schweidnitz on October 1, allowing the Austrians to winter in Silesia. In Saxony, Daun gradually gained ground against Prince Henry, and on the Pomeranian coast, the Russians, led by Rumyantsev, seized the fortress and harbor of Kolberg on December 16. With Pitt's departure, Frederick no longer had certainty regarding British subsidies for continuing the war, realizing that luck would play a crucial role in his survival the following year.

1762: Frederick's Salvation

Frederick's fortunes took a turn with the death of Empress Elizabeth on January 5, 1762, leading to Peter III, a supporter of Prussia, ascending to the Russian throne. On May 5, Peter made peace with Frederick, and on May 22, the Treaty of Hamburg was concluded between Prussia and Sweden through Peter's mediation.

In June, Peter allied himself with Frederick in a campaign against Denmark over the ancestral home of Holstein. He also instructed Chernyshev to assist Frederick in expelling the Austrians from Silesia. However, in July, after Peter was overthrown and killed, Catherine II (the Great) revoked his measures against Denmark and Austria but did not resume the war against Frederick.

In Silesia, Daun assumed command of the Austrian forces, with Laudon serving in a subordinate role. Before Catherine's recall of Chernyshev took effect, Frederick and Daun converged on Schweidnitz. Frederick aimed to recapture the city, while Daun sought to relieve it. Daun suffered defeat at Burkersdorf on July 21, and his second attempt to relieve Schweidnitz was repelled at Reichenbach on August 16.

Finally, on October 9, the Prussians regained control of Schweidnitz. In Saxony, Prince Henry and Seydlitz achieved a significant victory over the Austrians at Freiberg on October 29. Less than a month later, on November 24, Austria and Prussia signed an armistice, bringing a temporary halt to the hostilities.

The events of 1762 marked a turning point for Frederick. The death of Empress Elizabeth and the ascension of Peter III brought a Prussophile ruler to the Russian throne, resulting in a shift in Russia's stance toward Prussia. Peter's peace agreement and alliance with Frederick provided a much-needed respite for Prussia. However, Peter's reign was short-lived, and his successor Catherine II chose not to renew the war against Frederick, effectively maintaining the status quo.

Despite the armistice and the absence of renewed hostilities, Frederick remained cautious. The war had taken its toll on Prussia, and the ongoing conflict between other European powers presented continued uncertainties. Frederick understood that luck played a vital role in his survival and the future of Prussia. The year 1762 had brought some respite, but the challenges were far from over. The following years would test Frederick's resilience and diplomatic acumen as he navigated the complex landscape of European politics and sought to secure the survival and prosperity of Prussia.

1762: Western Germany and British Successes

Victories in Western Germany

In western Germany, Ferdinand of Brunswick achieved notable victories over Soubise at Wilhelmsthal on June 24 and Prince Xavier of Saxony at Lutternberg on July 23. Continuing his successful campaign, Ferdinand captured Göttingen on August 16. While the French had a minor success at Johannisberg on August 30, they suffered a setback when they lost Kassel on November 1.

British Engagements and Overseas Conquests

In the Western theater, Britain declared war on Spain on January 2, 1762, following the rejection of Pitt's earlier proposal. This action took place four months before the Family Compact's deadline for Spanish intervention. The Spaniards retaliated by attacking Portugal, prompting a swift reinforcement by the British. The Portuguese fortress of Almeida fell to the Spanish on August 25, and overseas, the Spanish captured Colonia do Sacramento, located on the estuary of the Río de la Plata, opposite Buenos Aires.

However, these Spanish successes were overshadowed by significant British achievements. The capture of Havana on August 13 and Manila on October 5 demonstrated British military prowess. Additionally, the British secured three important West Indian islands: Martinique and Saint Lucia in February, and Grenada in March.

Diplomatic Shifts and Preliminaries of Peace

Russia's departure from the anti-Prussian alliance had a profound impact, leading Austria to recognize the futility of prolonging the war. With Austria's objections removed, France swiftly sought a resolution with Great Britain. The British, no longer interested in supporting Prussia against Austria's claims over Silesia, engaged in negotiations. In October, France persuaded Spain, who was disappointed by the course of events, to join the peace talks with the British. Finally, on November 3, 1762, three weeks prior to the Austro-Prussian armistice, Great Britain and France signed preliminary peace agreements at Fontainebleau, setting the stage for the eventual end of hostilities.

The Treaty of Paris (February 10, 1763)
The Treaty of Paris, signed on February 10, 1763, marked the end of the Franco-British and Austro-Prussian wars. It involved Great Britain, Hanover, France, Spain, and Portugal. The key provisions of the treaty included:

Territorial exchanges:

France relinquished mainland North America east of the Mississippi River (except New Orleans), several West Indian islands, and French conquests in India and the East Indies since 1749.

Great Britain restored various West Indian islands, Atlantic islands, the West African colony of Gorée (Senegal), and Belle-Île-en-Mer to France.

Spain regained Havana and Manila, ceded Florida to Britain, and received Louisiana (including New Orleans) from France.

Other important actions:

The French evacuated Hanover, Hesse, and Brunswick.
British concessions to France in the West Indies aimed to secure the French evacuation of Prussian exclaves in western Germany.
France claimed the obligation to occupy those areas until Austria settled with Prussia.
Some British citizens preferred to retain the West Indian islands or return Canada instead.

The Treaty of Hubertusburg (February 15, 1763)

The Treaty of Hubertusburg, signed on February 15, 1763, at a hunting lodge between Dresden and Leipzig, involved Austria, Prussia, and Saxony. The key details of the treaty were as follows:

Negotiations and exclusions:

Negotiations began on December 31, 1762, with Frederick of Prussia excluding Russia (no longer a belligerent) from the negotiations.

Frederick refused to evacuate Saxony until its elector renounced any claim to reparation.

Territorial adjustments:

The treaty restored the status quo of 1748, returning Silesia and Glatz to Frederick and Saxony to its own elector.

Prussia consented to the election of Archduke Joseph as Holy Roman emperor as a concession to Austria.

Bute's Settlement with France

Bute's settlement with France was milder compared to what Pitt's settlement would have been. Bute aimed for a lasting peace with France, fearing that excessive demands would unite the whole of Europe against Great Britain. However, Choiseul, the French foreign minister, had no intention of making a permanent peace. During the American Revolution, when France went to war with Great Britain, the British found no support among other European powers.

The Aftermath

Prussia's emergence as a great power:

Prussia emerged from the war as an unchallenged great power.

Frederick the Great's personal reputation was significantly enhanced, overshadowing his reliance on fortune and British subsidies.

Austria's diminished prestige:

Austria's prestige was diminished due to Prussia's success.

Russia's gain in Poland:

Russia gained significantly by eliminating French influence in Poland.

The First Partition of Poland (1772) became a Russo-Prussian transaction, with Austria reluctantly involved and France being ignored.

Seven Years' War: Causes, Key Events, and Significance(1756-1763)